Over 2,000 sherds of Hessian Refractory crucibles have been found at Jamestown, representing at least 90 vessels. Two different shapes have been identified, a beaker, or conical shape with a single pouring spout, and a triangular shape, which provides three corners to be used as pouring spouts. Beaker-shaped crucibles are typically larger, measuring on average 11 cm (4.3 inches) tall with a base diameter of 58mm (2.3 inches). The largest beaker crucible in the Jamestown collection measures 18.5 cm (7.3 inches) tall with a base diameter of 82mm (3.2 inches). Triangular shaped crucibles are smaller, measuring on average 69.5mm (2.7 inches) tall with a base diameter of 31.5mm (1.2 inches). The smallest triangular crucible measures just shy of 1 centimeter (9.7mm) tall!
Analysis of ceramic sherds in the Jamestown assemblage confirmed that the vessels found at Jamestown were produced in Hesse Germany, a state which encompasses the city of Frankfurt1. At least three vessels are stamped on the base with the mark of Peter Topfer, a crucible maker who worked in the town of Großalmerode.
Crucibles were widely exported from Germany beginning around 1500, and they were a critical tool in the laboratory of a seventeenth-century chemist, alchemist, assayer, or metallurgist. Known throughout Europe for their high-quality and stability under high heat, the majority of crucibles found at Jamestown are 69.5mm (2.7 inches) tall triangular shape. This suggests that they were intended to be used in small-scale metallurgical processes where precision and quality control was important. While many of the Jamestown crucibles appear to have never been used, about a quarter of the assemblage still retain colorful and crumbly residues on their interiors and exteriors. At least three sets of crucibles were found with evidence suggesting that two crucibles were placed on top of each other, sometimes with clay luting, to create a sealed environment for a chemical reaction to occur (see images below). This was done using both beaker and triangular shaped vessels.
Investigation of the residues found on the crucibles has shown that most of these residue-covered vessels were used for metallurgical refining2,3,4,5, perhaps as part of the colonists’ quest to find gold or silver as the Spanish already had further south. Refiners William Dawson and Adam Ransack, and goldsmiths William Johnson and Richard Bellfield, came to Jamestown on the First Supply in January 1608, and a third refiner, William Callicut arrived with the Second Supply in September 1608. Possibly one of these five men brought crucibles with them, knowing that they would be needed for experimentation.
The question still remains if these small vessels were also part of the first efforts to produce glass in Virginia.6 The first glassmakers arrived on the Second Supply in September 1608, and in November sent back to England a “tryal of glasse” with Christopher Newport. While ingredients for this process have been identified in the form of cullet, the types of ceramic (or other) vessels used in the process have not yet been determined. Analysis of the crucibles is ongoing to determine if some were part of this also ultimately unsuccessful enterprise.
The majority of the crucibles were found in features such as the Factory, the Kitchen and Cellar and the First Well, which were abandoned during the Starving Time winter of 1609-10 and filled with trash in the spring of 1610. This indicates that the vessels were only used during Jamestown’s first few years. It is likely that the lack of precious metals or successfully produced glass led to the discard of the crucibles, as the colony abandoned their experimental endeavors and worked to stabilize.
related images
Crucible with glassy residues on interior and exterior
Triangular crucible
Large beaker shaped crucible with residues
Small triangular crucible
Small triangular crucible
Crucible with metallurgical residues on interior
Exterior base with makers mark PTV GER
Mid-sized beaker crucible
Complete, unused crucible
Larger triangular crucible
Small triangular crucible with residues
Mid-sized beaker crucible with residues on interior and exterior
Tiny triangular crucible
Small triangular crucible with residues on interior and exterior
Small beaker-shaped crucible
Two small beaker-shaped crucibles, one on top of the other, with heavy residues
references
1. Martinón-Torres, Marcos and Thilo Rehren (2005) Analysis and Interpretation of Some Crucible Fragments from Jamestown. Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK.
2. Martinón-Torres, Marcos and Thilo Rehren (2007) Trials and Errors in Search of Mineral Wealth: Metallurgical Experiments in Early Colonial Jamestown. Rittenhouse. Vol 21.
3. Martinón-Torres, Marcos and Thilo Rehren (2009) Post-Medieval Crucible Production and Distribution: A Study of Materials and Materialities. Archaeometry 51(1): 49-74.
4. Owen, Greenough, Straube (2014) Compositional Characteristics Of Jamestown Tryal Glass (Virginia ca. 1608). Historical Archaeology, 48(4):76-94
5. Veronesi, Rehren, Straube, and Martinón-Torres (2019) Testing the New World: early modern chemistry and mineral prospection at colonial Jamestown 1607-1610. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences.
6. Rehren, Veronisi, Straube, and Martinón-Torres (2019) Glassmaking tests at Early Jamestown? Some New Thoughts and Data. Journal of Glass Studies 61:265-270
